This square map written in Latin and German depicts the region of Saxe-Hildburghausen, what is today the District of Hildburghausen in south-western Germany, as noted by the large cartouche in the upper left corner. The top of the cartouche contains five cherubs around the initials EF topped with a crown. EF likely stands for Ernst Fredrick II, the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen at the time of this map’s production (around 1730). Fredrick’s name is written below the emblem in its Latin form: Ernesto Friderico. The cartouche also includes the name of the map-maker, Ioannes Bapt. Homann, or Johann Baptist Homann. In 1664 Homann moved to Nuremberg and began a publishing house that specialized in map making. Homann’s publishing firm would become a major producer for central and northern Europe, with the maps circulating widely due to their quality, attractiveness, and relatively low cost. The bottom left corner of the map contains an “explanation of the symbols” (Erklärung der Zeichen) which records what each symbol represents. This list is contained within an elaborate pedestal topped with the crest of the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen, a cherub trumpeter, as well as cannons, flags, and drums; all symbols of warfare. The bottom right corner contains a plan for the Residenzstadt of Hildburghausen (Plan der Hoch Fürstlichen Residenz-Stadt Hildburghausen). This plan includes a city view, as well as plans for an elaborate garden, not yet complete. Additionally, the town is surrounded by smaller buildings and crops. The plan includes a numbered key to the various buildings both within and outside the Residenzstadt. The desire of Dukes, Princes, and other Imperial leaders of the German regions in this period to have more grandiose administrative-military centers in the form of Residenzstadts drove much of the urban mapping of this period. Depicted in the remaining space, the map's rendering of Saxe-Hildburghausen includes mountains, trees, rivers, and towns, as well as mills (eine Mühl), zoos (ein Thier Garten), and ferries (ein Fähre). There are spaces of this region that are marked with two different colors. There are two pink spaces that are not connected and lie on the left and right sides of the map, while the four yellow regions lie in the center and each cardinal direction. The colors were likely added using transparent water color wash. Using color to illuminate maps was common within German practice, where it was used to denote religious areas, administrative regions, or countries. While it is unclear what the colors on this map record, the usage of them fits within a larger German tradition. (Riley Gibson 2026)
Special Collections, Carleton College, Northfield, MN
Rights for maps held by individual publishers and institutions. Thumbnails displayed constitute fair use.
Carleton Library Special Collections (Flat Files) (G5700 1400-1800 Map 35)
This map of Halle is believed to be a later state of another map of Halle held in Carleton’s Special Collections. Published by the Homann firm in Nuremberg, this map depicts the town of Halle from above, as well as a profile view, two internal factory views, and a view of a lecture hall. While this map is from the same copper plate as the other map of Halle, a large cartouche in the upper right corner indicates that it was added to at a later time. The plates created in the process of copper engraving, while reusable for periods of time, require re-engraving as the ink makes the carved lines too shallow to print correctly. This re-engraving process was common within the Homann firm, especially with maps that were frequently printed, like the maps of Germany. However, the process of re-engraving does indicate that there was an opportunity for the firm to add the cartouche to this map, therefore making a new state of the engraving. The cartouche indicates the map's dedication to Christian Wolff (1679-1754), a German enlightenment philosopher and resident of Halle. It is not yet known whether Wolff personally commissioned this map or whether it was an honorary dedication within a larger Atlas, however the cartouche’s inclusion does indicate a level of commitment to enlightenment ideals from the Homann firm. Surrounding the dedication are navigational tools and cartographical imagery, including two globes, an astrolabe, books, a compass, and a ruler. Cartouches often served as visual indicators of the cultural values of the creator, in this case a recognition of the value of enlightenment ideals including both science and philosophy. (Riley Gibson 2026)
Johann Baptist Homann and Johann Christoph Homann
Carleton Library Special Collections (Flat Files) (G5700 1400-1800 Map 36
The center of this map depicts an overview of the city of Halle, with a profile view and three snapshots of life in the city along the bottom. The text of this map is in German, with the title indicating it as a depiction and view of Halle, the capital of one of the districts of Prussia-Magdeburg. The title also notes that this map was from the publishing house of Johann Baptist Homann and contributed to by his son Johann Christoph Homann. This map, published around 1730, is likely from Johann Baptist Homann’s Großer Atlas über die ganze Welt, originally published in 1716 as an expansion to his original 1707 Atlas über die ganze Welt. The map itself is similar in style to a number of other city views that the Homann firm published. After Johann Baptist’s death in 1724, his son Johann Christoph took over the company until his own death in 1730. Given the dedication in the title to both Johann Baptist and his son, it is likely that it was included in a later edition of the Großer Atlas published under Johann Christoph. However, after Johann Christoph’s early death, the heirs to the firm (Johann Georg Erbesberger, a copper engraver working for the company, and Johann Michael Franz, a University friend of Johann Christoph’s) continued to work in his style for at least two years. Additionally, the lack of a date in the title is also characteristic of pre-Homann Heirs work. After 1737, the Homann firm would consistently date their maps. This places the date of production around the time of Johann Christoph’s death. The copper engraving is colored with bright greens, pinks, and blues, which make the map very vibrant. Given its publication in the mid-eighteenth century this map includes many indications of the cultural moment of the Enlightenment. The renderings at the bottom of the city view includes two factory scenes from the salt industry of Halle. The two drawings are supplemented by a view of an auditorium during a lecture. This combination emphasizes the manual and intellectual labor of a larger city like Halle. Johann Christoph even studied medicine in Halle before taking over his father’s company. The map also includes a detailed key to the numbering of the buildings, river, and fields within and surrounding the city. The attention to detail and quality of the engravings leave no doubt as to why the Homann firm was one of the leading European cartographical publishing firms of the eighteenth century. (Riley Gibson 2026)
Carleton Library Special Collections (Flat Files) (G5700 1400-1800 Map 37)
Contrary to its title, the Liber Physiognomiae is not primarily a text of physiognomy but rather astrology, describing the prevailing belief that the position and movement of heavenly bodies could be used as an accurate predictor of future events. The manuscript is best known for its descriptions of the destiny of both men and women born under the influence of each zodiac sign. Accompanying these descriptions is a personification of each zodiac sign’s ruling planet, that is to say the planet considered to hold dominion over each horoscope, flanked by a man and woman. The depiction of each planet seems based upon their pagan namesake. For example, Saturn, named after the ruler of the ancient titans who preexist the gods, is shown as a wizened, stately figure. These depictions also bear iconographical similarities to a number of frescoes in Padua’s Palazzo della Ragione created during a period of renewed interest in both ancient Greek and Arabic astrology potentially spurred by the influence of Pietro d’Abano (1257-1315 CE), an Italian native and well known astrologer. Pietro d’Abano is also associated with many other aspects of the Liber Physiognomiae. He wrote at least one section on healthy eating, and he potentially compiled many of the texts that make up the manuscript over a century before this copy was made circa 1440. Pietro was an interesting contributor to the field of astrology during his time, ascribing far more importance to the medical value of astrology than many of his contemporaries. He was also frequently associated with the occult both during and after his life, a condemnation that led him to appear twice before the Inquisition in both Paris and Padua, as well as the posthumous burning of his body. The manuscript that we see was penned by three different scribes with its recipient likely a member of Ferrara’s Este family. This connection is based upon the text (which is written in Latin) as well as the relatively well-rendered state of the book itself, but remains far from absolute as there is no concrete evidence of the book’s ownership before the 18th century. Still, there is strong evidence that the Etse family did place real value on the results of astrological divination with Marquess Leonello d'Este (1407-1450 CE) famously changing his wardrobe’s color scheme in response to the current planetary ruler. The most eye-catching aspect of the volume are the two volvelles positioned on the front and back pages of the manuscript. These volvelles would be used to calculate various items of astrological significance with the front volvelle operating as an astrolabe for the calculation of latitude and the back volvelle being used to calculate the timing of sunrise and sunset. Though the earliest volvelles date around the mid to late 13th century, well before the illumination of the Liber Physiognomiae, the use of volvelles for astrological calculations is a relatively later innovation, the history of which places the Liber Physiognomiae as a fairly early adopter of the technology, preexisting the 16th century boom in astrological volvelles.(Theo Greiff)
Modena, Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, Liber physiognomiae, Lat. 697 = a.W.8.20
Liber physiognomiae, ed. by Paola Di Pietro Lombardi. Modena: Il Bulino, 2000.
Liber physiognomiae at Facsimile Finder
Special Collections (Books, Quarto) (BF1726 .L53 2000)
The Atlas Universal by Diogo Homem, completed in the mid 16th century, is a world atlas containing 19 entries covering a multitude of different geographical regions as well as an entire world map and multiple charts and calendars. It features detailed depictions of Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas, highlighting both known territories and speculative geography based on the discoveries of the era. The maps in the atlas are richly decorated, with embellishments wind heads, mountain ranges, ships, and sea monsters, embodying both the practical navigation tools as well as artistic expressions of Renaissance cartography. Scale bars placed on the atlas’s maps and charts enable the atlas’s viewer to measure distances and gauge the relative size of land masses. Each map also contains compass roses with rhumb lines radiating from them to aid in navigation and path finding. Homem’s work displays not only geographical knowledge but also an understanding of maritime navigation, which was critical for Portugal’s extensive overseas ventures at the time. Entries 1-14 in the Atlas Universal are maps of species geographic regions, while entries 15-19 consist of a world map, Zodiacal Circle, Calendar, Solar inclination chart, and Zonal Map of World. Of the regional maps, while most of them are centered around the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Indian Ocean, there are multiple maps of the coastlines of the America’s, as well as a depiction of Japan off the coast of China. The calendar contained in the atlas a combination of sun and moon charts, on a nineteen year cycle. Highlighted on the calendar, marked in gold, is the date of Easter in each of the nineteen years. All the entries in the atlas use color in both a form of artistic expression as well as a cartographical tool for designating key features such as the shading of the different territories' coastlines in order to distinguish them. The use of color is not however seen in other conventions of map making such as coloring water bodies blue. In all of the maps city names are depicted in small lettering along the coastlines while country names are written in larger text inside of the boundaries of their respective territories. Major cities are also illustrated with drawings of buildings or castles. Additionally, apart from major rivers, such as the Nile in Northern Africa, and the Amazon in South America, rivers are not well depicted throughout the Atlas. Throughout the maps there are also artistic drawings of people, ships, and animals local to the different regions. Overall, the Atlas focuses on providing a comprehensive depiction of the territories and navigational routes of the known world at the time of its creation, with regions represented separately as well as a depiction of the entirety of the known world. (Noah Morris; 2024)
Homem, D., & Marques, A. P. (2002). Atlas Universal. M. Moleiro.
Map of the Pacific Coast of Central America from an online exhibit at the National Library of Russia
Special Collections (Horizontal Shelving) (G1059 .H6 2000)
The Genoese World Map of 1457 is a truly unique example of hybridization of different medieval cartographic styles. While still technically classified as a mappamundi, the Genoese World Map represents what author David Woodward understands it as a “transitory” mappamundi, as it draws on three different strands of medieval cartographic thought: medieval mappaemundi, portolan charts, and Ptolemaic geography. We may not know the author of the Genoese World Map, but the author’s legacy lives on, giving modern viewers a unique glance into the world of medieval cartography. Upon first viewing the map, most viewers will be quick to notice the unique shape that the world inhabits, resembling an almond or a human eye. This shape is quite unique to maps of this era, and some researchers like Gerda Brunnlecher have analyzed its possible meaning. In a 2013 paper which analyzes the Genoese World Map, Brunnlecher speculates that its almond-like shape could have come about for a variety of reasons. Most notably, she speculates that the map’s almond-like shape could possibly be traced to the concept of the “mandorla,” an almond-shaped outline used in medieval European art to represent divinity. Most frequently, Christ himself is depicted as surrounded by a mandorla, leading Brunnlecher to posit that in the Genoese World Map, “the frame might signify that the world is Christ’s domain.” Yet, Brunnlecher also writes that the map itself is unique due to its lack of obvious Christian imagery. One defining feature of medieval mappaemundi is their portrayal of both space and time as existing within one defined plane. This can commonly be seen in many mappaemundi through their on-map depictions of the fabled Garden of Paradise, or through the imposition of divine figures (such as angels or Christ himself) outside of the map’s frame. Notably, the Genoese World Map includes neither of these features, and also does not center itself on Jerusalem, as many other mappaemundi do. The Genoese World Map also places emphasis on conveying supposedly contemporary political knowledge (and legendary tales) through its use of visual imagery paired with Latin text. The Asian section of the map is replete with Mongolian rulers, most notably the “Great Khan” sitting cross-legged in what appears to be China. However, by the time of this map’s production in 1457 the Mongols’ influence over Asia had waned, and the Ming Dynasty had ruled China for nearly a century! This reflects the limits of European knowledge of Asia in the 15th century, which appears outdated to modern readers of the map. The Genoese World Map also draws on the influence of portolan charts for its depiction of the Mediterranean Sea, which may appear to modern viewers as the “most accurate” section of the map. Portolan charts were commonly used by sailors throughout the era to navigate the often treacherous Mediterranean Sea, and the map’s outline of the Mediterranean can be understood as an inclusion of the portolan chart model in a mappamundi context. Furthermore, the map also features the inclusion of numerous rhumb lines, which were utilized by sailors to help navigate their ships. While the Genoese World Map was unlikely to have been used by sailors in navigation, the inclusion of this information gives us more insight into the mapmaker’s production process and the sources that they utilized. (Albert Bosler 2025)
Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana Fondata de Giovanni Treccani
Library of Congress, digital facsimile
Carleton College Special Collections; G3200 1457 .M37 2008
The Vallard Atlas, named after the temporary owner Nicolas Vallard, is a collection of 15 nautical maps from 1547. These maps are primarily of coasts of The Mediterranean, North Africa, and South America. Each map is heavily influenced by Portuguese map making at the time, leading scholars to believe that they were made from Portuguese sources that no longer exist. With very little attention to physical locations, intricate illustrations fill all of the land. The only locations labeled are coastal cities. The water is in striking visual contrast with the land, with navigational lines of portolan chart influence. The focus on navigation on the water indicates that these maps were likely used primarily for water navigation. However, the visual appeal is theorized to mean that they were often displayed on big tables for communal viewing. The illustrations on the land are primarily scenes of people. The dress of the people vary by map, indicating knowledge of cultural differences around the world. The first map in the Atlas is thought to be of the east coast of Australia, and the illustrations are of an indigenous group. They are portrayed in a village, and there are people in and around it doing various things such as riding horses and working. Other maps include castles and royalty as well. The illustrations in the water are also important in the context of map making at the time. Along with the typical portolan chart lines of navigation, there are compases, ships, and animals in the water. The maps are primarily oriented with south facing up, but the compases have a bigger north arrow facing the bottom of the page. Among the animals and boats there is a wide variety of stylistic choices, based on geography. Some of the creatures are mystical and exaggerated, while others are real and simple. The decisions made in the illustrations give insight into the degree of knowledge that Persians had of the rest of the world at the time. (Mia Beeman-Weber 2024)
Dieppe School of Maps, Vallard Atlas, 1547
Thomaz, Luís Filipe F. R. (Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis), 1942-; Reinhartz, Dennis.; Miranda García-Tejedor, Carlos, 1962-; M. Moleiro Editor, S.A.
Olaus Magnus’ Carta Marina, published in 1539, is an impressively detailed map of Scandinavia, made of nine woodblock-printed panels in full color. It has thin, exact lines in black ink that outline both the land and water of the region. The seas–the Norwegian Sea, North Sea, and Baltic Sea–are emphasized, composing nearly half of the map. There are several wind roses with lines that extend and overlap across the face of the map. In the lower left corner, there is a description, and in the lower right corner, a legend. In addition to the precise rendering of the geography of the area, there are careful depictions of numerous animals, landscape features, and peoples that cover the land. The sea is full of ships and sea creatures. Labels in Latin script identify more than 900 locations, peoples, and creatures of the area. Olaus Magnus was a Catholic archbishop in Sweden at the time of the Reformation. Both on diplomatic missions for the king and for the Pope, Olaus Magnus traveled widely and was very educated. As the Swedish church became Lutheran, he was exiled to Italy after refusing to join the new regime. His Carta Marina, published with the permission of the Pope, has a strong Counter-Reformation sentiment evident in its descriptions. It is also very patriotic to his home of Sweden, and asserts Sweden as a significant and modern nation, with a rich history in the origin of the Goths. The Carta Marina was the most comprehensive map of Scandinavia at the time, as preceding maps like those of Ptolemy were largely vague regarding the Northern regions. While drawing inspiration from Ptolemaic geography, evident in his use of longitude and latitude lines, Olaus Magnus sought to establish a more accurate and educational depiction of the area. However, he was not necessarily a cartographer by profession, and aspects of his spatial representation, in particular the “graduation” of the map, are unclear. Supporting the educational purpose of this map, in a text conceived as a robust legend to the Carta Marina – Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, or “Description of the Northern Peoples” – Olaus Magnus explores the ethnography, history, and natural history of Scandinavia in 22 books. Olaus Magnus’ depiction of sea creatures and monsters is of note, as they are a very prominent feature of his articulation of the seas. These creatures both show fish as a major resource of the region, as well as reference classical and Northern monsters. This attention to sea monsters aids Olaus Magnus’ intention to depict the Northern region as full of wonders. (Lucy Watson 2026)
Nigg, Joe. Sea Monsters : A Voyage around the World’s Most Beguiling Map. Chicago ; The University of Chicago Press, 2013.
Carta marina at the Library of Congress
Special Collections (Flat Files) ; GA951.O53 N54 2013
This is a zone map drawn in color, with the Red Sea brightly visible in red. Like many other medieval maps, it is drawn as a circle surrounded by ocean, but this specific map also has a calendar encircling the ocean. The calendar includes the dates of Easter and zodiac signs. It was important during the medieval period to have a calendar for Easter because it was important to celebrate Easter on the correct day. Giovanni Leardo made four maps during his lifetime, and three of them survive today. This element of a calendar is found in common between this 1442 map and his better known map from 1452. This feature sets his map apart because other maps of his time didn’t have the calendar drawn around the map or didn’t have a calendar at all. This map shows many buildings and castles.These buildings give the map detail and color and function to highlight important landmarks. Like many other medieval mapmakers, Leardo found a lot of his information in classical sources. There is not a clear list of what sources he used, but it is thought that he may have modified or even made up some of the details in the map. He is most specific in his labeling of Europe, and the least detailed in his labeling of Africa. This likely means that he was able to get the most information about the geography of Europe, but lacked information about places farther away from him. The map is situated with Jerusalem at the center, indicating that Leardo could have had religious motivations when making this map or that he had seen other world maps that shared this feature. Paradise appears as a city in the far east of the map; leading out of it are the four rivers that were thought to originate in Eden. This Paradise looks accessible from Earth rather than completely separated from the rest of Earth. Some of the text surrounding the map is from Scripture, but it is not perfectly quoted, which indicates that Leardo was likely not copying directly from Scripture when writing down the text. The Mediterranean Sea is drawn with a detailed shoreline, as Leardo took care to represent the coasts and full shape of the Mediterranean. This reflects the influence of portolan charts, because they provided models that allowed other mapmakers to draw more geographically precise shorelines. Leardo’s map is also noteworthy in that it is a zone map. This map has the uninhabited poles drawn in, which reflected beliefs at the time about zones of inhabited and uninhabited lands. It was believed that Europe, Asia, and North Africa constituted a habitable zone of the world, and that this was surrounded by areas where humans could not live. Leardo portrayed this with a bright red color below North Africa to indicate the heat of the equitorial zone and a shaded tan area north of Europe to indicate the cold polar region. Leardo’s choice of zone map format is significant because both of his other two surviving maps are also zone maps. (Lizzy Johnstone 2027)
Verona, Italy, Biblioteca civica, Manuscript Ms 3119
Mappamondo di Giovanni Leardo: Lettera di Prete Gianni, ed. by Mauro Bini. Modena: Il Bulino, Edizioni d'Arte, 2015.
Facsimile Finder
Leardo Map of the World 1452 or 1453 at the American Geographical Society Library Digital Map Collection
Carleton Library Special Collections (Horizontal Shelving) (GA308.L4 B565 2015)
This map depicts central Europe, from the Baltic Sea down to Venice, and from Flanders to the Crimean peninsula. It mainly focuses on cities and the major natural features of the landscape, such as seas, major lakes and rivers, and large forests, as well as many islands. A clear effort was made to be faithful to the current knowledge of the area, with many places and modern cities easily recognizable. Every city, body of water, and region is labeled in Latin. Each city is represented by a little drawing of a building, or several buildings for larger cities. The city of Varad, now Oradea in Transylvania, for example, is drawn as a large castle, but the many large settlements along the Rhine River are each drawn as multiple large buildings, also indicating their size, but showing that they are different, perhaps less hostile to the people making the map. Similarly, the forests are drawn with trees of different sizes and densities in different places, holding a lot of detail about the terrain in a very simple way. These features keep the map feeling uncluttered and simple without compromising on detail. There was also a lot of care paid to the rivers, with many minor rivers filled in where a different map maker might not have deemed them important enough for such a large scale map. The map was clearly made through different accounts of regions being synthesized into one whole map, as some places appear to be out of place slightly when compared to the entire map, but everything is extremely precise relative to the things close to them. It is also notable that the bottom edge of the map had been drawn, and then a decision was made to continue south, likely as a new source was found with knowledge of that southern area. The map is also written in Latin instead of German or any other commonly spoken language of the area at that time, indicating that this is more of an academic source than one designed for popular consumption. (Nicholas McGlashan 2027)
Nuremberg, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, La214
Kreuer, Werner. Monumenta cartographica 1490-1525 : kartographische Denkmäler, ein Triumph über die Zeit : Essener Bearbeitung von sechs Tafeln aus der Frühzeit der Kartographie mit sechs Vollfaksimilierungen. Essen: Institut für Geographie der Universität GH Essen, 1996.
Special Collections (Flat Files) ; GA873.5 .K73 1996